China / Indonesia: Chinese coolie on a tobacco plantation belonging to the Amsterdam Deli Company...

Waves of Chinese emigration have happened throughout history. The mass emigration known as the Chinese diaspora, which occurred from the 19th century to 1949, was mainly caused by wars and starvation in mainland China, invasion from various foreign countries, as well as the problems resulting from political corruption.- Most immigrants were illiterate peasants and manual labourers, called 'coolies', who emigrated to work in places such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, and Southeast Asia. Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies at Leiden